This is the homepage of the Bones and Behavior Working Group. Our group is dedicated to fostering a greater synthesis across biological anthropology with the specific aim of developing integrative approaches to research questions concerning human and primate adaptation. In order to increase the ability of researchers to link behavioral, biological, and skeletal datasets, the Bones and Behavior Working Group is assembling and distributing measurement collection protocols from across biological anthropology. As part of this effort, we have developed and published an integrative measurement protocol for morphological and behavioral research in humans and non-humans primates. That protocol, as well as links to other research protocols and measurement information, is available below.

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Motivation for the Project
Human biologists, primatologists, and evolutionary morphologists seek to understand the evolution of human and non-human primate adaptation. Yet, despite the interdependence at an organismal level of physiology, behavior, and skeletal biology, each group of biological anthropologists tends to work in relative isolation. Although we might address similar "umbrella questions," such as adaptation to marginal environments or ontogeny, we generally do so without integration of protocols across subareas. The exponential expansion of theory, data, and technology makes it currently impossible to specialize in all subareas. Likewise, graduate training has turned to earlier and earlier subareal specialization. This isolation, despite its many advantages, inherently weakens our ability to answer certain key research questions, and makes it more likely that proximate rather than ultimate questions will be answerable.

The potential value of linking the complementary datasets assembled by different groups of biological anthropologists could not be more profound.

• The skeletal data offer large sample sizes and the ability to consider change through evolutionary time.

• In contrast, data on extant humans and non-human primates are richer in allowing us to explore individual context, behavioral, and physiological cues and provide the ability to examine individuals through developmental time. If the protocols for approaching the two were integrated, each dataset could inform and enrich the other.

Without such integration, we are left with a limited empirical framework for understanding more universal adaptations. The limitations of the usual isolation approach become clear when trying to assemble data to address questions raised by the hominin fossil record. Such scenarios are dependent on understanding variation in living taxa relative to environmental conditions, as well as the variation in extinct taxa. The extent to which we can understand the relationship between biological, ecological, and skeletal factors in extant taxa both for individual animals and population-level differences will facilitate our answering ultimate questions about evolutionary processes. These issues can only be resolved by changing the extent to which we integrate our data collection protocols and perspectives.

The Bones and Behavior Working Group
To begin fostering this integration, a group of biological anthropologists with expertise in each of the target areas (The Bones and Behavior Working Group) met for two intensive workshops with the aim of developing an integrative approach to research questions concerning primate adaptation. The aim was to set the agenda for future research initiatives for this new synthesis, and to generate a measurement protocol that maximizes our ability to link behavioral, biological, and skeletal databases. We are also working to establish research groups to address evolutionary questions in an explicitly collaborative fashion, as well as to establish a database that organizes and distributes data on human and primate biology and behavior.

The Integrative Measurement Protocol
We culled a set of core measurements from across the sub-areas of biological anthropology that address issues of universal concern and that could be made maximally comparable. These are organized around "non-skeletal" measures such as body weight and overall size and "proxies for key skeletal measures" with definitions that can be approximated on both living and skeletal samples. Please note that in order to more closely approximate measures taken from bone, many of the skeletal proxy measures modify in important ways similar measures often taken in human biology.

Our intention is not to provide a comprehensive list of measurements for human biological or primatological research, but instead to focus on a core set of measurements that can be collected relatively quickly and that maximizes the impact for addressing broad evolutionary questions. The protocol provides a small core of these measures with the hope that researchers will add these to their lengthier and more specific research protocols.

We present standardized definitions with simple instructions for use by a non-specialist, high-resolution photos of measurements being taken (currently mostly on humans with future versions adding nonhuman primates), schematic drawings of bones relative to soft-tissue structures (again, currently in humans), and information on equipment use and availability.

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Additional Protocols and Data Collection Information
In addition to the integrative measurement protocol, we are also working to assemble and distribute other measurement protocols and data collection information from across biological anthropology. Our aim is to provide a biological anthropology research methods clearinghouse. If you have suggestions or would like to contribute to our effort, please contact Josh Snodgrass or Susan Antón.

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Financial Support for the Project
Support for establishing the Bones and Behavior Working Group and the development of the integrative measurement protocol was provided by NSF BCS-0633167, the Center for the Study of Human Origins at NYU, and the University of Oregon.

Comments or Suggestions?
We welcome your thoughts and contributions. Contact Josh Snodgrass or Susan Antón.

The Bones and Behavior Working Group

Organizers:
Susan C. Antón, Department of Anthropology, NYU (website)
J. Josh Snodgrass, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon (website)

Participants:
Christian Crowder, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, New York
Anthony Di Fiore, Department of Anthropology, NYU (website)
Dana L. Duren, Department of Community Health, Wright State University (website)
Eduardo Fernandez-Duque, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania (website)
William R. Leonard, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University (website)
Steven R. Leigh, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign (website)
W. Scott McGraw, Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University (website)
Richard J. Sherwood, Department of Community Health, Wright State University (website)
Sara Stinson, Department of Anthropology, City University of New York (website)
Phoebe Stubblefield, Department of Anthropology, University of North Dakota (website)
Trudy R. Turner, Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (website)
Claudia R. Valeggia, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania (website)
Frances J. White, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon (website)

Graduate Student Participants:
Felicia C. Madimenos, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon (website)
Emily R. Middleton, Department of Anthropology, NYU
Christopher A. Schmitt, Department of Anthropology, NYU (website)

Project Assistants:
Sean Badger, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon
Tara Cepon, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon
Cindy Kirchmeier, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon